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This is a site on the hills near the Brahmaputra Valley, close to routes leading into China and Myanmar. Here stone tools, including mortars and pestles, have been found. These indicate that people were probably growing grain and preparing food from it. Other finds include jadeite, a stone that may have been brought from China. Also common are finds of tools made of fossil wood (ancient wood that has hardened into stone), and pottery.

A Harappan city was a very busy place.There were people who planned the construction of special buildings in the city. These were probably the rulers . It is likely that the rulers sent people to distant lands to get metal, precious stones, and other things that they wanted. They may have kept the most valuable  -objects, such as ornaments of gold and silver, or beautiful beads, for themselves. And there were scribes , people who knew how to write, who helped prepare the seals, and perhaps wrote on other materials that have not survived. Besides, there were men and women, crafts persons, making all kinds of things — either in their own homes, or in special workshops. People were travelling to distant lands or returning with raw materials and, perhaps, stories. Many terracotta toys have been found and a long time ago children must have played with these.

Let us look at some of the objects that were made and found in Harappan cities. Most of the things that have been found by archaeologists are made of stone, shell and metal , including copper, bronze,gold and silver. Copper and bronze were used to make tools, weapons, ornaments and vessels.Gold and silver were used to make ornaments and vessels.Perhaps the most striking finds are those of beads, weights, and blades. The Harappa also made seals out of stone.These are generally rectangular and usually have an animal carved on them. The Harappans also made pots with beautiful black designs, Cotton was probably grown at Mehrgarh from about 7000 years ago. Actual pieces of cloth were found attached to the lid of a silver vase and some copper objects at Mohenjodaro. Archaeologists have also found spindle whorls, made of terracotta and faience. These were used to spin thread. Many of the things that were produced were probably the work of specialists. A specialist is a person who is trained t...

A famous ruler of a dynasty known as the Guptas. We know about Samudragupta from a long inscription, actually a poem in Sanskrit, composed by his court poet,Harishena nearly 1700 years ago. This was inscribed on the Ashokan pillar at Allahabad. This inscription is of a special kind known as a prashasti , a Sanskrit word, meaning ‘in praise of’. While prashastis were composed for some of the ruler such as Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni, they became far more important from the time of the Guptas. The poet praised the king in glowing terms —as a warrior, as a king who won victories in battle, who was learned and the best of poets. He is also described as equal to the gods. The prashasti was composed in very long sentences. Here is part of one such sentence: Harishena describes four different kinds of rulers, and tells us about Samudragupta’s policies towards them. The rulers of Aryavarta , Here there were nine rulers who were uprooted, and their kingdoms were made a part of Samudragupta’s em...

India is located in the northern hemisphere. The Tropic of Cancer (23°30'N) passes almost halfway through the country. From south to north, main land of India extends between 8°4'N and 37°6'N latitudes. From west to east, India extends between 68°7'E and  97°25'E longitudes. If we divide the world into eastern and western hemispheres.India belong to great longitudinal extent of about 29°, there could be a wide differences in local time of places located at two extreme points of India. As such, the difference between these two points would be of about two hours. As you have learnt earlier, the local time changes by four minutes for every one degree of longitude. The sun rises about two hours earlier in the east (Arunachal Pradesh) than in the west (Gujarat).That's why the local time of longitude of 82°30'E has been taken as the Indian Standard Time.

India is a vast country. For administrative purposes, the country is divided into 29 States and 7 Union Territories. Delhi is the national capital. The states have been formed mainly on the basis of languages. Rajasthan is the largest state and Goa is the smallest state in terms of area. The states are further divided into districts. Physical division India is marked by a diversity of physical features such as mountains, plateaus, plains, coasts and islands. Standing as sentinels in the north are the lofty snowcapped  Himalayas. Him+alaya mean ‘the abode of snow ’. The Himalayan mountains are divided into three main parallel ranges. The northernmost is the Great Himalaya or Himadri. The world’s highest peaks are located in this range. Middle Himalaya or Himachal lies to the south of Himadri. Many popular hill stations are situated here. Find out the names of five hillstations. The Shiwalik is the southernmost range. The Northern Indian plains lie to the south of the Himalayas. They ar...

India is a country of vast geographical expanse. In the north, it is bound by the lofty Himalayas. The Arabian Sea in the west, the Bay of Bengal in the east and the Indian Ocean in the south, wash the shores of the Indian peninsula. India has an area of about 3.28 million sq. km. The north-south extent from Kashmir to Kanyakumari is about 3,200 km. And the east-west extent from Arunachal Pradesh to Kuchchh is about 2,900 km. The lofty mountains, the Great Indian Desert, the Northern Plains, the uneven plateau surface and the coasts and islands present a diversity of land forms. There is a great variety in the climate, vegetation, wildlife as well as in the language and culture. In his diversity, we find unity that is reflected in traditions that bind us as one nation. India has a population of more than one hundred twenty crores since the year 2011. It is the second most populous country of the world after China. Locational Setting India is located in the northern hemisphere. The Tr...

Humans have been living on different kinds of land forms in different ways. Life is difficult in mountainous areas. Plains provide much better conditions. It is easy to grow crops, build a house or a road in a plain than a mountain. Sometimes, natural calamities such as earthquakes,volcanic eruption, storms and floods cause widespread destruction. Huge loss of life and property takes place. By creative awareness about such incidences we may lower the risks.You may find out from your own surroundings in how many ways we use the land and water. Quite often we use the land in a wasteful manner, for example constructing houses on a fertile land. Similarly we throw garbage on land or in water making them dirty. We should avoid using such important gifts of nature in a careless manner. The available land is not only for our use. It is our duty to leave the earth a better place for future generations as well.

Name of the Scientist : Aryabhatta Category of Research : Mathematics, Astronomy Born : 476 CE Died : 550 CE Contributions : Aryabhata is the author of several treatises on mathematics and astronomy, some of which are lost. His major work, Aryabhatiya, a compendium of mathematics and astronomy, was extensively referred to in the Indian mathematical literature and has survived to modern times. Era: Gupta Era

Rivers too can become a source of conflict between states. A river may begin in one state, flow through another and end in a third. The sharing of river water between different states that the river goes through is becoming an issue of conflict. For example, you may have heard about the Cauvery water dispute between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The water stored in Krishnasagar dam in Karnataka is used for irrigating a number of districts and for meeting the needs of the city of Bangalore. The water stored in Mettur dam in Tamil Nadu is used for crops grown in the delta region of that state.A conflict arises because both dams are on the same river. The downstream dam in Tamil Nadu can only be filled up if water is released from the upstream one located in Karnataka.Therefore, both states can't get as much water as they need for people in their states. This leads to conflict. The central government has to step in and see that a fair distribution is worked out for both states. One of the...

Conflicts can often lead to violence and death because one group decides that it is all right to use force to prevent the other group from protesting. Conflicts occur when people of different cultures, religions, regions or economic backgrounds do not get along with each other, or when some among them feel they are being discriminated against. People may use violent means to settle their differences. This leads to fear and tension among others living in an area. The government is responsible for helping to resolve conflicts. Let's read about some of the conflicts in our society and the role of the government in resolving them. Religious processions and celebrations can sometimes lead to conflicts. For example, the route a procession takes may lead to a conflict. The government, particularly the police, play an important role in getting representatives of concerned communities to meet and try and arrive at a solution. At times there is fear that violence may erupt, with people throw...

While Magadha became a powerful kingdom, Vajji, with its capital at Vaishali (Bihar), was under a different form of government, known as gana or sangha . In a gana or a sangha there were not one, but many rulers. Sometimes, even when thousands of men ruled together, each one was known as a raja . These rajas performed rituals together. They also met in assemblies, and decided what had to be done and how, through discussion and debate.For example, if they were attacked by an enemy,they met to discuss what should be done to meetthe threat. However, women, dasas and kammakaras could not participate in these assemblies.Both the Buddha and Mahavira .belonged to ganas or sanghas . Some of the most vivid descriptions of life in the sanghas can be found in Buddhist books. Rajas of powerful kingdoms tried to conquer the sanghas . Nevertheless, these lasted for a very long time, till about 1500 years ago, when the last of the ganas or sanghas were conquered by the Gupta rulers.

Towns Early States and Economies (c. 600 BCE - 600 CE) There were several developments in different parts of the subcontinent during the long span of 1,500 years following the end of the Harappan civilisation. This was also the period during which the Rigveda was composed by people living along the Indus and its tributaries. Agricultural settlements emerged in many parts of the subcontinent, including north India, the Deccan Plateau, and parts of Karnataka. Besides, there is evidence of pastoral populations in the Deccan and further south. New modes of disposal of the dead, including the making of elaborate stone structures known as megaliths, emerged in central and south India from the first millennium BCE. In many cases, the dead were buried with a rich range of iron tools and weapons. From c. sixth century BCE, there is evidence that there were other trends as well. Perhaps the most visible was the emergence of early states, empires and kingdoms. Underlying these political processes...

It is not uncommon for nations to rewrite their constitutions in response to changed circumstances or change of ideas within the society or even due to political upheavals. The Soviet Union had four constitutions in its life of 74 years (1918, 1924, 1936 and 1977). In 1991, the rule of the Communist Party of Soviet Union came to an end and soon the Soviet federation disintegrated. After this political upheaval, the newly formed Russian federation adopted a new constitution in 1993. But look at India. The Constitution of India was adopted on 26 November 1949. Its implementation formally started from 26 January 1950. More than fifty-five years after that, the same constitution continues to function as the framework within which the government of our country operates. Is it that our Constitution is so good that it needs no change? Was it that our Constitution makers were so farsighted and wise that they had foreseen all the changes that would take place in the future? In some sense both t...

India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States. (2) The States and the territories thereof shall be as specified in the First Schedule. (3) The territory of India shall comprise— (a) the territories of the States; (b) the Union territories specified in the First Schedule; and (c) such other territories as may be acquired.

The city of Dholavira was located on Khadir Beyt in the Rann of Kutch, where there was fresh water and fertile soil. Unlike some of the other Harappan cities, which were divided into two parts, Dholavira was divided into three parts, and each part was surrounded with massive stone walls, with entrances through gateways. There was also a large open area in the settlement, where public ceremonies could be held. Other finds include large letters of the Harappan script that were carved out of white stone and perhaps inlaid in wood. This is a unique find as generally Harappan writing has been found on small objects such as seals. The city of Lothal stood beside a tributary of the Sabarmati, in Gujarat, close to the Gulf of Khambat. It was situated near areas where raw materials such as semi-precious stones were easily available. This was an important centre formaking objects out of stone, shell and metal. There was also a store house in the city. Many seals and sealings (the impression of s...