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Many of these cities were divided into two or more parts. Usually, the part to the west was smaller but higher. Archaeologists describe this as the citadel. Generally, the part to the east was larger but lower. This is called the lower town. Very often walls of baked brick were built around each part. The bricks were so well made that they have lasted for thousands of years. The bricks were laid in an interlocking pattern and that made the walls strong. In some cities, special buildings were constructed on the citadel. For example, in Mohenjodaro, a very special tank, which archaeologists call the Great Bath, was built in this area. This was lined with bricks, coated with plaster, and made water-tight with a layer of natural tar. There were steps leading down to it from two sides, while there were rooms on all sides. Water was probably brought in from a well, and drained out after use. Perhaps important people took a dip in this tank on special occasions. Other cities, such as Kalibang...

This site is located in a fertile plain, near the Bolan Pass, which is one of the most important routes into Iran. Mehrgarh was probably one of the places where women and men learnt to grow barley and wheat, and rear sheep and goats for the first time in this area. It is one of the earliest villages that we know about.Archaeologists who excavated the site found evidence of many kinds of animal bones from the earliest levels . These included bones of wild animals such as the deer and pig. In later levels, they found more bones of sheep and goat, and in still later levels, cattle bones are most common,suggesting that this was the animal that was generally kept by the people. Other finds at Mehrgarh include remains of square or rectangular houses. Each house had four or more compartments, some of which may have been used for storage. When people die, their relatives and friends generally pay respect to them.People look after them, perhaps in the belief that there is some form of life afte...

Some maps focus on specific information; such as road maps, rainfall maps, maps showing distribution of forests, industries etc. are known as thematic maps . Suitable titles are given on the basis of information provided in these maps.There are three Components of Maps – Distance, Direction and Symbol. Distance Maps are drawings, which reduce the entire world or a part of it to fit on a sheet of paper. Or we can say maps are drawn to reduced scales. But this reduction is done very carefully so that the distance between the places is real. It can only be possible when a small distance on paper represents a large distance on the ground. Therefore, a scale is chosen for this purpose. Scale is the ratio between the actual distance on the ground and the distance shown on the map. For example, the distance between a city is 10 km. If you show this 10 km. distance by 2 cm on a map, it means, 1 cm on the map will show 5 km. on the ground. The scale of your drawing will be 1 cm = 5 km. Thus, ...

A globe can be useful when we want to study the earth as a whole. But, when we want to study only a part of the earth, as about our country, states, districts, towns and villages, it is of little help. In such a situation we use maps. A map is a representation or a drawing of the earth’s surface or a part of it drawn on a flat surface according to a scale. But it is impossible to flatten a round shape completely. We find that maps are useful to us for various purposes. One map shows a small area and a few facts. Another map may contain as many facts as a big book. When many maps are put together we get an Atlas. Atlases are of various sizes, measurements drawn on different scales. Maps provide more information than a globe. They are of different types. Some of them are described below. Physical maps Maps showing natural features of the earth such as mountains, plateaus, plains, rivers, oceans etc. are called physical or relief maps . Political maps Maps showing cities, towns and vill...

Everyone's rushing to get to the Gram Sabha!Because the Gram Sabha is holding its first meeting after the election of the new GramPanchayat. Gram Sabha The Gram Sabha meeting begins with the Panchayat President (who is also called the Sarpanch) and the members of the Panchayat (the Panchs) presenting a plan on repairing the road that connects the village to the main highway. After this, the discussion moves to the subject of scheme. The Gram Panchayat The Gram Panchayat meets regularly and one of its main tasks is to implement development  programmes for all villages that come under it. As you have seen, the work of the Gram Panchayat has to be approved by the Gram Sabha. In some states, Gram Sabhas form committees like construction and development committees. These committees include some members of the Gram Sabha and some from the Gram Panchayat who work together to carry out specific tasks. This meeting was attended by the Sarpanch, Ward Members (Panchs) and the Secretary. Gram ...

A flag is a necessity for all nations. Millions have died for it. It is no doubt a kind of idolatry which would be a sin to destroy. For, a flag represents an Ideal The unfurling of the Union Jack evokes in the English breast sentiments whose strength it is difficult to measure. The Stars and Stripes mean a world to the Americans. The Star and the Crescent will call forth the best bravery in Islam. It will be necessary for us Indians Muslims, Christians Jews, Parsis, and all others to whom India is their home-to recognize a common flag to live and to die for. Mahatma Gandhi

The people make the decisions in a democracy. Through voting in elections people elect leaders to represent them. These representatives take decisions on behalf of the people. In doing so it is assumed that they will keep in mind the voices and interests of the people.All governments are elected for fixed periods. In India this period is five years. Once elected, governments can stay in power only for that period. If they want to continue to be in power then they have to be re-elected by the people. This is a moment when people can sense their power in a democracy. In this way the power of the government gets limited by regular elections. Other ways of participating Elections are usually held once in five years. Besides voting there are other ways of participating in the process of government. People participate by taking an interest in the working of the government and by criticising it when required. In August 2005, when a particular government increased the money people had to pay f...

Magadha became the most important   mahajanapada in about two hundred years. Many rivers such as the Ganga and Son flowed through Magadha. This was important for (a) transport, (b) water supplies (c) making the land fertile. Parts of Magadha were forested. Elephants, which lived in the forest, could be captured and trained for the army. Forests also provided wood for building houses,carts and chariots. Besides, there were iron ore mines in the region that could be tapped to make strong tools and weapons. Magadha had two very powerful rulers,Bimbisara and Ajatasattu, who used all possible means to conquer other janapadas . Mahapadma Nanda was another important ruler. He extended his control up to the north-west part of the subcontinent. Rajagriha (present-day Rajgir) in Bihar was the capital of Magadha for several years. Later the capital was shifted to Pataliputra (present-day Patna). More than 2300 years ago, a ruler named Alexander, who lived in Macedonia in Europe,wanted to become a...

Plains are large stretches of flat land. They are, generally, not more than 200 metres above mean sea level. Some plains are extremely level. Others may be slightly rolling and undulating. Most of the plains are formed by rivers and their tributaries. The rivers flow down the slopes of mountains and erode them. They carry forward the eroded material. Then they deposit their load consisting of stones,sand and silt along their courses and in their valleys. It is from these deposits that plains are formed.Generally, plains are very fertile. Construction of transport network is easy.Thus, these plains are very thickly-populated regions of the world. Some of the largest plains made by the rivers are found in Asia and North America. For example,in Asia, these plains are formed by the Ganga and the Brahmaputra in India and the Yangtze in China.Plains are the most useful areas for human habitation. There is great concentration of people as more flat land is available for building houses, as we...

While many people lived in the cities, others living in the countryside grew crops and reared animals. These farmers and herders supplied food to crafts persons, scribes and rulers in the cities. We know from remains of plants that the  Harappans grew wheat, barley, pulses, peas, rice, sesame, linseed and mustard. A new tool, the plough , was used to dig the earth for turning the soil and planting seeds. While real ploughs, which were probably made of wood, have not survived, toy models have been found.As this region does not receive heavy rainfall, some form of irrigation may have been used. This means that water was stored and supplied to the fields when the plants were growing. The Harappans reared cattle, sheep, goat and buffalo. Water and pastures were available around settlements. However, in the dry summer months large herds of animals were probably taken to greater distances in search of grass and water. They also collected fruits like ber , caught fish and hunted wild animals ...